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Chapter 3

The 20th Century

World Wars, social change, and the modern era

Table of Contents

Chapter 3: The 20th Century

The First World War (1914--1918)

Background

Early 20th-century Britain was characterised by optimism and progress. The nation had a powerful empire, respected armed forces, and thriving industries. Important social reforms included:

  • Unemployment assistance
  • Pensions for the elderly
  • Free school meals for children
  • Improved workplace safety legislation
  • More democratic local government

The War Begins

The war was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914. Underlying causes included rising nationalism, militarism, imperialism, and divisions between European powers.

The Two Sides

The Allied Powers:

  • Britain, France, Russia, Japan, Belgium, Serbia
  • Later joined by Greece, Italy, Romania, and the United States
  • The entire British Empire participated -- over one million Indians served, with approximately 40,000 casualties
  • Forces from the West Indies, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada also fought

The Central Powers:

  • Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria

Key Facts

  • More than 2 million British casualties occurred during the war
  • Approximately 60,000 casualties occurred on the first day of the Battle of the Somme in July 1916
  • The war ended at 11:00 AM on 11 November 1918 with Allied victory
  • This date is commemorated as Armistice Day (Remembrance Day)

The Partition of Ireland

  • In 1913, the British government promised Home Rule for Ireland -- self-governance with its own parliament while remaining part of the UK
  • Northern Irish Protestants opposed Home Rule and threatened armed resistance
  • The First World War delayed implementation
  • Irish Nationalists grew impatient and launched the Easter Rising in Dublin in 1916
  • Military execution of the uprising's leaders triggered a guerrilla war
  • A 1921 peace treaty resulted in Ireland's partition in 1922:
    • Six predominantly Protestant northern counties remained as Northern Ireland within the UK
    • The remainder became the Irish Free State, achieving full republican status in 1949
  • Disagreement over partition persisted, leading to decades of conflict known as "the Troubles"

The Inter-War Period (1918--1939)

Improvements

  • The 1920s brought improved living conditions for many
  • Public housing expanded
  • New homes were built in towns and cities

The Great Depression

  • The 1929 Great Depression caused severe unemployment in some UK regions
  • Traditional heavy industries like shipbuilding suffered significantly
  • Newer industries such as automobile and aviation manufacturing developed

Cultural Developments

  • Car ownership doubled from one million to two million between 1930 and 1939
  • Writers Graham Greene and Evelyn Waugh gained prominence
  • Economist John Maynard Keynes published influential economic theories
  • The BBC began radio broadcasting in 1922
  • The BBC launched the world's first regular television service in 1936

The Second World War (1939--1945)

Background

  • Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933
  • He believed post-World War I conditions were unjust and desired territorial expansion
  • Britain initially sought to avoid war but declared war when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939

The Two Sides

The Axis Powers: Fascist Germany and Italy, Imperial Japan

The Allied Powers: UK, France, Poland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Union of South Africa (later joined by the USA and USSR)

Key Events

  • After occupying Austria, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, and the Netherlands, German forces advanced through France in 1940
  • Winston Churchill became Prime Minister during this national crisis

Dunkirk

  • As France fell, Britain evacuated over 300,000 troops from the beaches of Dunkirk through a massive operation involving civilian volunteers in small boats
  • Although there were heavy casualties and equipment losses, the evacuation enabled Britain to continue fighting
  • This created the phrase "the Dunkirk spirit"

Britain Standing Alone

  • From June 1940 until Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Britain stood largely alone against Nazi Germany

The Battle of Britain

  • Hitler needed air superiority before he could invade Britain
  • During the summer of 1940, the Battle of Britain saw British fighter planes -- particularly Spitfires and Hurricanes -- prevail in crucial aerial combat
  • Britain's victory prevented a German invasion

The Blitz

  • Despite losing the Battle of Britain, Germany launched nighttime bombing campaigns -- known as the Blitz -- that devastated London and other cities
  • The city of Coventry was nearly destroyed
  • Strong national resistance emerged; "the Blitz spirit" describes the resilience shown during this adversity

Key Figures

Winston Churchill (1874--1965)

  • Born into a political family; served as a soldier and journalist
  • Became a Conservative MP in 1900
  • Became Prime Minister in May 1940
  • Refused Nazi surrender demands and inspired the British people through severe hardship with his famous speeches
  • Lost the 1945 general election but returned as Prime Minister in 1951
  • Received a state funeral after his death in 1965
  • Voted Britain's greatest person in a 2002 BBC poll

Alexander Fleming (1881--1955)

  • Born in Scotland; studied medicine in London
  • In 1928, while researching influenza, he discovered penicillin -- the first antibiotic
  • Scientists Howard Florey and Ernst Chain developed it into usable medicine
  • Mass production of penicillin began in the 1940s
  • Fleming received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1945
  • Penicillin remains one of the most important medicines ever discovered
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